True Vipers Of India: The Three Viperine Snakes Of The Country

A Russell's viper. Image credit: Davidvraju, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons

India’s vipers are often discussed as a single group, but the country’s viper fauna has two distinct evolutionary lineages. The larger and more diverse group is the pit vipers, or Crotalinae, which include bamboo, Malabar, and Himalayan pit vipers. The other is the Viperinae, or true vipers. In India, the latter is represented by three species: the Russell’s viper, the Indian saw-scaled viper, and the Levantine viper. The current Checklist of Snakes of India places all three in the subfamily Viperinae.

What Is A True Viper?

The term “true viper” refers to members of the subfamily Viperinae, within the family Viperidae. They are distinct from India’s pit vipers, which belong to Crotalinae. Both groups possess the characteristic long, hinged venom fangs associated with vipers, but pit vipers have an additional sensory structure: the loreal pit, a heat-sensitive organ between the eye and nostril. True vipers do not have these facial heat-sensing pits.

Russell’s Viper

Scientific name: Daboia russelii

A Russell's viper. Image credit: Prabhmeet Singh, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Among India’s vipers, the Russell’s viper is one of the most familiar. It is a medically important species that is among the “Big Four” of India, responsible for the highest number of snakebite-related deaths in the country.

It has a heavy body, and the dorsal pattern usually consists of three rows of large, dark-edged oval or rounded markings. The pattern can be striking when the snake is exposed, but it also provides effective camouflage among dry vegetation, soil, and leaf litter.

The Russell’s viper occurs across large parts of the Indian subcontinent and is associated with a variety of habitats, including human-modified ones.

Saw-scaled Viper

Scientific name: Echis carinatus

A saw-scaled viper. Image credit: Dr. Raju Kasambe, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

This species is considerably smaller than the Russell’s viper, but its reputation in India is not based on size. It is adapted to relatively dry environments and can occur in deserts, semi-arid landscapes, rocky areas, scrub, and other open habitats. The rough, strongly keeled scales are one of its recognizable features. When threatened, the snake may rub sections of its body together, producing the characteristic rasping or “sawing” sound from which its common name is derived. It feeds on small vertebrates and other prey and is part of the food web of India’s drier ecosystems.

It is also among the “Big Four” species of India because of its historical importance in snakebite epidemiology.

Levantine Viper

Scientific name: Macrovipera lebetina

A Levantine viper. Image credit: Rashid Baradaran, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

This species is the least widespread of India’s three true vipers. The current ZSI checklist records the Levantine viper from the western Himalayas.

The species is considerably less frequently encountered than the other two on the list in India. Historical records and published accounts place it in the mountainous and rocky landscapes of Jammu and Kashmir. Its broader range extends from the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East through Central and South Asia.

Its broader range extends from the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East through Central and South Asia. The Indian population therefore, represents the eastern portion of a much larger distribution.

Kraits of India: The Nine Species That Share A Country

Banded krait. Image credit: Arup2602, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

A krait can be lying beside a bed in a village home, moving through the rice field of a farmer, or crossing a road after dark without drawing much attention. These snakes are mostly nocturnal, generally secretive, and often encountered only briefly. Though a vital part of the ecosystem, these snakes also possess venom potent enough to kill a human being quite easily. So, while protecting them is important, safeguarding oneself from a krait is also equally needed. In India, “krait” refers to a group of closely related species in the genus Bungarus, and distinguishing them is considerably complicated.

India is currently home to nine recognised species of Bungarus whose ranges stretch from the Himalayas through the plains and plateaus of northern and central India to the Andaman Islands. Recent records and taxonomic work have also shown that the country’s krait diversity is still being refined.

• Andaman krait (Bungarus andamanesis)
• Northeastern hill krait (Bungarus bungaroides)
• Common krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
• Banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus)
• Lesser black krait (Bungarus lividus)
• Greater black krait (Bungarus niger)
• Sing krait (Bungarus sindanus)
• Suzhen’s krait (Bungarus suzhenae)
• Wall’s krait (Bungarus walli)

What Makes A Krait A Krait?

Kraits belong to the Elapidae family, the same broad snake family that includes cobras and coral snakes. Members of Bungarus are venomous and predominantly nocturnal. Many are ophiophagous, meaning that snakes form an important part of their diet, although their prey varies among species.

One feature that gives kraits their characteristic appearance is the enlarged vertebral row of scales running along the centre of the back. The subcaudal scales are also generally undivided, another useful character when distinguishing Bungarus from other Indian elapids.

But the familiar black body crossed by pale bands should not be treated as a complete identification guide. Several species are dark and banded, and closely related species can geographically overlap. Even the number, width, arrangement, and colour of bands can vary.

Common krait (Bungarus caeruleus)

A common krait. Image credit: Davidvraju via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The common krait is the species most people associate with the word “krait.” It also belongs to the “Big Four” venomous snakes, a group responsible for most snake-bite-related deaths in the country. It is distributed throughout large parts of mainland India and beyond, into neighboring parts of South Asia. It is usually dark blue-black, black, or bluish-black, with narrow whitish bands. In some individuals, the bands can be faint, incomplete, or difficult to see.

Banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus)

A banded krait. Image credit: Davidvraju via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0).

The banded krait is the easiest krait to recognise. Broad yellow or golden bands alternate with black across the body, producing a striking pattern that is very different from the relatively narrow banding of the common krait.

The species occurs across parts of eastern, northeastern, and central India and continues through much of mainland Southeast Asia. It is found across a wide variety of habitats.

Northeastern hill krait (Bungarus bungaroides)

A Northeastern hill krait. Animish Mandrekar via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 3.0).

Found in India’s northeastern hills and adjoining Himalayan landscapes, it is associated with relatively elevated, humid environments. It is much less frequently encountered compared to the common krait. It looks quite similar to the common krait with black body and narrow, white bands.

The Northeastern Hill Krait belongs to the krait fauna of India's northeastern hills and adjoining Himalayan landscapes. It is associated with relatively elevated, humid environments and has been recorded from parts of northeastern India.

Lesser black krait (Bungarus lividus)

A lesser black krait. Image credit: Sp.herp, CC BY-SA 3.0  via Wikimedia Commons .

This lesser-known species is primarily found in northeastern India, with records also extending into northern West Bengal. It is also found outside India in Nepal and Bangladesh. Its dark appearance can make it easy to mistake it for other black kraits, particularly the greater black krait.

Greater black krait (Bungarus niger)

The greater black krait was originally described from the Darjeeling region of West Bengal and is now known from parts of northeastern and eastern India. It is also found in the adjacent countries of Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. It closely resembles the lesser black krait. However, measurable differences include the form of vertebral scales, numbers of ventrals and subcaudals, and overall body size.

The Sind Krait: Bungarus sindanus

A Sind krait. Image credit: Sp.herp, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

This species is found in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. In India, it is found in arid and semi-arid landscapes, including parts of Rajasthan and adjoining regions. It is generally dark, with pale bands across the body, and can resemble other banded kraits.  

Wall's Krait: Bungarus walli

Wall’s krait was originally described by Frank Wall from Faizabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh. It has been recorded in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal, and Assam. Also found in neighboring countries of Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan.

Suzhen’s krait (Bungarus suzhenae)

A Suzhen's krait. Image credit: Chen Z-N, Shi S-C, Vogel G, Ding L, Shi J-S (2021), CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

It is one of the newest additions to India's krait list. The species was first described from China in 2021 and then in Myanmar. In 2024, it was found for the first time from the northeast Indian Nagaland-Manipur area.

Andaman krait (Bungarus andamanesis)

An Andaman krait. Image credit: Coryphophylax CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

It is the geographical outlier among India’s kraits. Unlike the mainland species, it is restricted to the Andaman Islands. The species was described in 1978 from the Andaman Islands, with the type locality associated with Port Blair on South Andaman Island. It is a Near Threatened species due to its restricted distribution.

Kraits And Snakebite In India

A common krait crossing the road. Image credit: Dr. Raju Kasambe, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Kraits are ecologically important predators, but they are also responsible for serious snakebite envenoming. The common krait is one of the country’s medically important snakes. Its nocturnal behaviour creates a particular risk in rural and peri-urban environments, where people may encounter snakes while sleeping on floors or moving around at night.

Krait venom is dominated by neurotoxic components that interfere with the nervous system functioning. Severe envenoming can lead to progressive paralysis and respiratory failure.

Another difficulty is that the bite itself may not initially look dramatic. A person may have little swelling or obvious tissue injury and therefore underestimate the seriousness of the incident.

Suspected krait envenoming is a medical emergency. A snake should never be caught or handled in an attempt to confirm its identity. The priority is rapid transport to appropriate medical care.

A Problem That Extends Beyond The “Big Four”

India’s focus on the four traditionally recognised major snakebite species has been important for public health, but it can also obscure the country’s broader venomous snake diversity.

Not every medically important krait belongs to the common krait. Other Bungarus species occur in regions where their biology, distribution, and venom compositions are less thoroughly studied.

Research has already shown that venom profiles can vary among closely related kraits. A major study of cryptic kraits in western and southern India found substantial differences in venom composition among lineages and raised concerns about the ability of existing antivenom to provide uniform protection against geographically and genetically divergent krait venoms.

This is one reason why taxonomy is not merely an academic exercise. Knowing which species occur where can directly affect venom research, snakebite treatment, and public health planning.

Protecting India's Kraits

Kraits are predators, and their ecological role is easy to overlook because most of their activity happens at night.

Their diet includes other snakes and, depending on species, other small vertebrates. In agricultural landscapes, their presence is part of a much larger food web linking rodents, frogs, reptiles, and other animals.

They also face a familiar set of threats. Habitat conversion, road mortality, and fear-driven persecution can affect snake populations. For species with small or fragmented distributions, such pressures can be especially important.

India’s current legal framework provides protection to the recognised Indian Bungarus species. The Zoological Survey of India’s 2025 Fauna of India checklist places all nine recognised Indian kraits in Schedule II of the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022.

Their IUCN assessments vary. Several are listed as Least Concern. The Andaman krait is listed as Near Threatened, and the Suzhen’s krait remains Not Evaluated.

Rivers Of Meghalaya

The Dawki River in Meghalaya. Image credit: Vikramjit Kakati via Wikimedia Commons.

Meghalaya has some of the rainiest places in India. So, it is no wonder that many rivers run through this tiny state. Most of these rivers originate in the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills of the state and flow into neighboring Bangladesh or the Indian state of Assam. Here are some of the rivers that flow through this beautiful state.

Simsang River

View upstream from Siju Hanging Bridge over the Simsang River, South Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India. Image credit: Timothy A. Gonsalves via Wikimedia Commons.

The Simsang River originates in the Nokrek Range that forms the backbone of the Garo Hills of Meghalaya. From there, it flows through the Garo Hills, dividing it into two and then enters the neighbouring country of Bangladesh. In the Garo Hills, it is the longest and largest river, supporting agriculture and the ecosystem throughout its basin. In Bangladesh, it is called the Someshwari River.

Umngot River

The Dawki River or Umngot River in Meghalaya. Image credit: Madhumita Das via Wikimedia Commons.

Popular for the extremely clean waters that make boats on it appear to float, the Umngot, also called the Dawki River, is a major river in Meghalaya. The river begins its journey in the eastern part of the Shillong Peak at an elevation of around 1800 m, from where it flows to form a natural border between Meghalaya’s East Khasi Hills District and Jaintia Hills District. The river also flows past the town of Dawki, where it invites many travellers who come to admire its beauty. It then flows towards Bangladesh, forming a natural border for some distance between India and Bangladesh. It has a total length of around 82 km. The Umngor River is vital to the economy of the region it flows through, as its waters irrigate crops, support fishermen, and attract tourists. A boat race is held on the river around March-April, and there is also a suspension bridge running along it that is popular with tourists.

Myntdu River

View of the Myntdu River from the Ialong Park, Meghalaya. Image credit: Psihrishi via Wikimedia Commons.

The Myntdu River is a vital water source in the Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya. It traces its source to the Mihmyntdu village near the town of Jowai at around 1,420 m. From there, it almost encircles Jowai, where it serves as a lifeline, then flows south through the Jaintia Hills into Bangladesh as the Shari River. In Meghalaya, the river is held sacred by the locals near its source. The Myntdu River supports agriculture and fishing in the settlements based around it.

Kynshi River

The Langshiang Falls of the Kynshi River. Image credit: JoistLNonglait via Wikimedia Commons.

This river starts its journey in the West Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, from where it flows for around 143 km before entering Bangladesh. The river is known for its scenic beauty, complete with rapids and waterfalls along its length. The state’s largest river island, Nongkhnum Island, lies where the Kynshi River bifurcates into the Phanliang and Namliang Rivers. The river irrigates around 2,000 square km. It is also important for fishing and hydroelectric power generation.

Umiam River

The gorgeous Umiam Lake formed by damming the Umiam River. Image credit: Amrutha n arun via Wikimedia Commons.

The Umiam River is famous for the Umiam Lake or Bara Pani formed by the damming of the river in 1965. The river originates in Meghalaya’s East Khasi Hills District. The Wah Umkhrah and Wah Umshyrpi are two of its major tributaries. The river leaves Umiam Lake and flows into the Kopili River in Assam.

Kopili River

The Khandong Dam on the Kopili River. Image credit: Xorg27, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

This river flows for 290 km through the two states of Meghalaya and Assam. It begins its journey in the Meghalaya Plateau and then flows into Central Assam before joining the Brahmaputra River. Throughout its course, the river features several waterfalls and rapids that lend it great beauty. Sadly, the river suffers from pollution caused by unscientific opencast coal mining, with acidification as a major issue.

Digaru River

The Digaru River traces its origin to the Garo-Khasi Hills and then flows northeast to join the Kopili River, which flows into Assam. It is also known as the Umtrew River. Three dams exist on this river for hydroelectric power generation.

Jadukata River

The Jadukata is another transboundary river. It begins its journey in the Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya and then flows into Bangladesh before joining the Surma River. The river runs for around 37 km.

Seven Iconic Wild Animals Found In Tamil Nadu And Where To See Them

Tamil Nadu, like other states with the Western Ghats, is home to great biodiversity, including several endemic species. Here are the seven most iconic wild animals found in this southern state.

Nilgiri Tahr

Nilgiri Tahr. Image credit: Asheen Anoopvia Wikimedia Commons.

Tamil Nadu’s state animal, the Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius), is an Endangered species, endemic to the southern Western Ghats region in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is a wild goat species found on high elevation cliffs, rocky outcrops, open plateaus covered by grasslands, etc. The Nilgiri tahr is exclusively herbivorous, feeding on grasses and shrubs. It is an extremely agile climber with good eyesight to detect predators or other threats in its surroundings. The species is threatened by habitat loss and poaching. The tahr is losing its habitat to development, livestock grazing, and the spread of invasive plants. These animals can be observed in the higher reaches of the Anaimalai Tiger Reserve of Tamil Nadu.

Emerald Dove

Emerald dove. Image credit: Jason Thompson via Wikimedia Commons.

The state bird of Tamil Nadu, the grey-capped emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica), is a beautiful bird with bright emerald-green wings and back. The species is found in tropical forests across South and Southeast Asia. The bird feeds on the fruits and seeds of plants, usually those that have fallen to the forest floor. It spends less time on trees except when roosting. It is a Least Concern species but suffers from habitat loss due to deforestation. It can be spotted across the forests of Tamil Nadu, including the Mudumalai and Anaimalai Tiger Reserves.

Tamil Yeoman

Tamil yeoman butterfly. Image credit: BrijeshPookkottur via Wikimedia Commons.

The beautiful Tamil Yeoman (Cirrochroa thais) is the state butterfly of Tamil Nadu. Locally, it is called Tamil Maravan, meaning Tamilian Warrior. This species is endemic to the Western Ghats, where it occurs in the moist evergreen forests on the mountains. It is around 60-75 mm in size and bright orange on the upper surface and brownish on the lower surface. The butterfly can be spotted while hiking or trekking on the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu.

Nilgiri Langur

Image credit: Ashwinsekaran via Wikimedia Commons.

This primate species (Semnopithecus johnii) is endemic to the Western Ghats and is a threatened species (listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List). It lives in the region's evergreen and deciduous forests at altitudes ranging from 300 to 2,000 m. It is primarily folivorous but also feeds on other plant parts and insects, etc. The Nilgiri langur is primarily arboreal and diurnal, living in social groups of 9 to 10 animals. Poaching was a major threat to species in the past, as their body parts were utilised in traditional medicine preparations. While education and awareness programs have largely helped curb this threat, the langur suffers from habitat loss due to human disturbances. It can be spotted in the protected areas of the Nilgiri Hills.

Malabar Parakeet

A beautiful Malabar parakeet. Image credit: Shantanu Kuveskar via Wikimedia Commons.

This gorgeous bird is endemic to the Western Ghats. The Malabar parakeet, also called the blue-winged parakeet (Psittacula columboides), lives in small flocks that sometimes fly across forest clearings, making screeching calls. These birds nest in tree hollows left by woodpeckers or barbets. The species is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. It can be seen across the Nilgiris flying across forested landscapes in the region.

Nilgiri Marten

Two Nilgiri martens in their natural habitat. Image credit: Navaneeth Kishor via Wikimedia Commons.

A threatened species, listed as Vulnerable, the Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is endemic to the Western Ghats. It occurs in evergreen montane forests and occasionally in deciduous forests as well as commercial plantations near forested landscapes. It is an efficient predator, feeding on a variety of small mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and more. It also feeds on plant parts, making it an omnivore. The species is threatened by habitat loss and persecution by honey farmers when caught ravaging the contents of bee boxes to feed on honey bee larvae. Nilgiri martens have been observed in the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.

Cochin Forest Cane Turtle

Cochin forest cane turtle. Image credit: Davidvraju via Wikimedia Commons.

Also known as the Kavalai forest turtle (Vijayachelys silvatica), this species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats region, living at elevations between 400 and 800 m. The species is found in evergreen and moist deciduous forests of the region. It is primarily terrestrial, living on the forest floor amid leaf litter or in burrows or tree hollows at the base. Here, it feeds on invertebrates and plant matter. The species is Endangered and suffers from numerous threats like habitat loss and poaching. The turtle is also temperature-sensitive, and climate change-induced rising temperatures are expected to harm this species, with little scope to move to a safer location. Forest fires also threaten this species.

The Suffering Subarnarekha River Of India

A river with a poetic name, “Subarnarekha” or the “Streak of gold,” is worth more than gold to the people living in its basin.  Flowing through the three states of Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha, the river has nurtured millions of lives, including humans, flora, and fauna over the generations. Today, the river has lost much of its former glory. Worse still, it is slowly dying. So, here is the tale of the Subarnarekha and why we, the people, are responsible for degrading our own lifeline.

The Origin Of The Name

The river is believed to have received its name from its association with gold mining, which may have occurred at the village of Piska near the river’s origin. Over the centuries, gold has been extracted from sediments deposited in the river bed of the Subarnarekha and continues to happen even today, although extremely rarely. The river is known to pick up gold particles as it flows through the gold-bearing or auriferous rocks of the Panch Pargana plain.

According to another belief, the river received its name from the golden hue of its waters which scientists claim comes from the minerals washed away from iron-ore deposits in the lateritic plateau through which it flows.

Course Of The Subarnarekha River

Hundru Waterfall on the Subarnarekha River. Image credit: Skmishraindia via Wikimedia Commons.

The Subarnarekha River traces its origins to a place near Nagri village in Jharkhand, about 15 km southwest of the state capital, Jhansi. It then flows through the Ranchi Plateau for 60 km before plunging over the cliff as the Hundru Fall, a 74 m drop. The river next enters a 25-m deep gorge, followed by its exit from the Ranchi plateau. It now flows through the relatively flat piedmont plain of the Panch Pargana, where it widens to around 500 m and flows for around 145 km. It again narrows to enter the Dalma Range and then the Dhalbhum valley. 

The Subarnarekha River in Medinipur District of West Bengal. Image credit: Antorjal, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

It flows another 150 km before leaving Jharkhand and entering West Bengal’s Medinipur District. Here, it flows through relatively flat alluvial plains and finally empties into the Bay of Bengal in Odisha’s Balasore District at Kirtania.

Features Of Note

Eutrophication of the river's waters in the dry season.

The Subarnarekha River flows for a total of 395 km, with 269 in Jharkhand, 64 in West Bengal, and 62 km in Odisha. It flows through major urban centers like Ranchi, Jamshedpur, Chaibasa, and Bhadraj. Its river basin’s catchment area is around 19,296 km2. It is a heavily rain-fed river which receives 82% of its annual flow primarily during the monsoon (June to September) and runs almost dry during the rest of the year.

Importance Of The Subarnarekha River

Chandil Dam on the Subarnarekha River. Image credit: Anupmahato via Wikimedia Commons.

The Subarnarekha River supplies water for domestic usage to millions of households along its basin. Its water is also heavily used for the irrigation of agricultural lands. Since the region is rich in mineral deposits, mining is a major activity, and many large-scale industries depend on the river for their water supply. The river has also been dammed along its length to supply water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.

The Subarnarekha River sustains agriculture in its basin.

The river also supports forests and other natural ecosystems along its length, and tribal populations living along it often depend heavily on it for their daily lives.

Subarnarekha In Danger

The heavily littered Subarnarekha River.

The Subarnarekha is one of the country’s most polluted rivers. The high rate of unregulated, unscientific mining along the river’s banks in Jharkhand and Odisha has laden the river with high levels of contaminants. Even traces of radioactive waste from the uranium mining area have been detected in the river. The source of the river has almost dried up. 

Dumping of industrial wastes on the banks of the Subarnarekha River.

The river also receives a high volume of agricultural wastes and untreated sewage. Illegal sand mining along the river also threatens the river’s hydrology and ecology. Heavy deforestation along the riverbank has also increased soil erosion, leading to increased sedimentation in the river. Extreme weather events driven by climate change have also made the river’s flow unpredictable, leading to more frequent and intense flooding.

For further reading: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aparna-Shukla-2/publication/322206325_Major_River_Systems_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir/links/5ce37bdb299bf14d95abb92f/Major-River-Systems-of-Jammu-and-Kashmir.pdf#page=283

https://www.indiawaterportal.org/governance-and-policy/governance/subarnarekha-dying-whos-responsible

The Dagwan Stream Of Jammu And Kashmir

The Dagwan Stream is a vital watercourse that flows through the Kashmir Valley of India. It is a major water source feeding the Dal Lake in Srinagar and is therefore economically significant to the people of Kashmir. It also supports the biodiversity of the Dachigam National Park as it flows through it. Thus, it is also ecologically very significant.

Alternate names: Dagwan River, Dachigam Stream, Telbal Stream

Course Of The Dagwan Stream

The Dagwan Stream originates from the high-altitude glacial lake Marsar at an elevation of around 4,000 m. The lake is fed by melted snowwater from the surrounding mountains. As the Dagwan Stream flows downstream from the lake, it is joined by several perennial and non-perennial streams.

Segments also leave the main stream of Dagwan, with one being the Sharab Kol that serves water for irrigation of agricultural fields and floating gardens. Another such segment flows into the Harwan Reservoir, also called the Sarband. The reservoir is a major water source in parts of Srinagar City.

The Dagwan Stream then enters the Dachigam National Park, where it is known as the Dachigam Stream as it flows through the park's forests and grasslands.

Finally, the Dagwan enters the Dal Lake at the northern side of the Hazratbal shrine located on the lake’s northern shores.

Of note is the Dara Stream, a major tributary of the Dagwan, that joins it in Wangund before it flows into the Dal Lake.

Ecological Significance Of The Dagwan Stream

As the stream flows from the Marsar Lake and through the Dachigam National Park, it supports flora and fauna along its course. In Dachigam, it flows through coniferous, deciduous, grassland, and scrubland. Animals such as the critically endangered hangul, black bears, and leopards drink water from the stream. A variety of bird species, aquatic species, etc., also depend on the river for survival.

Economic Significance Of The Dagwan Stream

The Dal Lake, which is fed by the Dagwan Stream, is a vital water source for the people of Srinagar. It is important for tourism. Houseboat stays and shikara rides on the lake are hugely popular tourism activities. The Dal Lake also serves as a source of water for household activities for thousands of households in the city. Fishing is also a major source of livelihood for people in the area.

Environmental Issues

Although Dagwan remains one of the most pristine watercourses in India, the situation is changing due to increasing disturbances along its course. With increasing pollution and developmental activities along its course, the Dagwan is gradually losing its pristine quality. Conserving the watercourse is vital for both the ecology and economy of Kashmir.

World's Largest River Island Is In India And It Will Soon Disappear: The Story Of Majuli

India is the proud home to the world’s largest river island. But the question is, for how long? In the last 100 years, Majuli on the Brahmaputra River in Assam has shrunk from 1,300 square km to 483 square km. Experts believe the island might vanish forever in the next two decades. Climate change has brought drastic changes to the island and its people, with many having to relocate and rebuild their homes several times due to erosion and floods claiming their previous homes. The Kumar community, or the potters, are the worst sufferers among them.

The community, steeped in poverty, is forced to live near the riverbanks because they need the clay there to make pottery for sale in local markets. Men from the community usually collect the clay, while women make pottery using their hands and feet, an art form they inherited from their mothers and grandmothers. Since the 16th century, the potters of Majuli have worked without a potter’s wheel or other machinery. Their homes are thus built near the river, as their livelihood depends on it. They usually do not own farmland, with pottery as their only income source.

In recent times, as severe weather events have become more frequent due to climate change and flooding has become more destructive, the river banks in Majuli are eroding more rapidly than ever before. The Kumar community in the area is thus forced to relocate whenever their villages are washed away by floods and rebuild their entire lives.

During the monsoon, when the rains drench the island and flooding happens, sometimes submerging the land for up to 5 feet, the Kumars are forced to leave their homes and take shelter along the highway. Their homes are built on bamboo stilts to help them withstand floods to some extent.

Majuli is not just home to the Kumars but also to many other communities with unique cultural practices and art and craft traditions found nowhere else on the planet. One example is the Mukha mask-making tradition of Majuli, which began sometime around the 15th and 16th centuries as part of the Neo Vaishnavism movement. This beautiful craft form is internationally renowned for its ornate masks used during traditional mythological plays on the island during special festivals.

Several other ethnic groups call this island home, which is also rich in biodiversity. Today, this island, inhabited since the 12th century, is about to disappear. If it goes, we will all be responsible for this disaster, as our growing carbon footprints are driving climate change. The world will lose its largest river island, and our country will witness age-old Assamese traditions disappear because we did not act in time.

Written by: Dr. Oishimaya Sen Nag

Photography by: Arijit Nag